Colostrum before and after

What Is It, Benefits & What To Expect

Overview

What is colostrum?

Colostrum (kuh-loss-trum) is the first milk your body produces during pregnancy. It forms in your mammary glands (breasts) and plays an important role in building your baby's immune system. If you plan on breastfeeding (nursing or chestfeeding), it's the first milk your baby will get from your breasts. If you don't want to breastfeed or if your baby is struggling to breastfeed, you can hand express colostrum. It's high in protein, vitamins, minerals and immunoglobulins (antibodies) that help build your baby's immune system. It's often called "liquid gold" because of its rich, golden color and valuable benefits.

What is colostrum made of?

Colostrum is high in protein and low in fat and sugar. It's filled with white blood cells that produce antibodies. These antibodies strengthen your baby's immune system, protecting him or her from infection. Colostrum is highly concentrated and nutrient-dense even in tiny doses, so your baby's tummy doesn't need a lot to reap its benefits.

What kind of nutrients are in colostrum?

Colostrum is rich in nutrients that protect and nourish your baby unlike anything else. It's made up of things like:

Immunoglobulin A (an antibody).
Lactoferrin (a protein that helps prevent infection).
Leukocytes (white blood cells).
Epidermal growth factor (a protein that stimulates cell growth).

It gets its color from carotenoids (an antioxidant) and vitamin A. Vitamin A plays a vital role in your baby's vision, skin and immune system. Colostrum is rich in magnesium, which supports your baby’s heart and bones, and copper and zinc, which also support immunity.

What's the difference between colostrum and breast milk?

Colostrum is a nutrient-rich first milk produced by your breasts during pregnancy. It changes to transitional breast milk a few days after your baby is born. However, small amounts of colostrum remain in your breast milk for several weeks.

There are distinct differences between colostrum and breast milk:

Colostrum is filled with immunoglobins to boost your baby's immune system and protect it from illness.
Colostrum has two times as much protein.
Colostrum has four times as much zinc.
Colostrum is lower in fat and sugar so it's easier to digest.
Colostrum is thicker and more yellow.

What are the stages of breast milk?

There are three different stages of breast milk: colostrum, transitional milk and mature milk.

Colostrum: Your first milk that lasts between two and four days after birth.
Transitional milk: Begins approximately four days after birth and lasts about two weeks.
Mature milk: Milk that lasts from approximately 14 days after birth until you are done producing milk.

When does colostrum turn to milk?

After approximately three or four days, colostrum will turn to transitional milk. This is often referred to as someone's milk "coming in." Your breasts will feel firm, tender and full. It means your milk supply has ramped up. By this time your baby's stomach has expanded and they can drink more milk each feeding. Once your milk supply is established and your body has stabilized, transitional milk changes to mature milk.

What makes colostrum turn to breast milk?

The pregnancy hormones created by the placenta help you create colostrum. The hormone progesterone drops significantly when the placenta separates from your uterus (after your baby is born). This drop in progesterone triggers your breasts to create milk.

Function

What is the purpose of colostrum?

The function of your breasts, or mammary glands, is to produce milk to feed your baby. Colostrum is more than the first milk your baby consumes after birth. It's highly concentrated with nutrients and antibodies to fight infection and protect your baby. It provides a powerful, unique immunity that only it can provide. Because your baby only needs a little bit of colostrum, it also helps them learn to suck, swallow and breathe during feeding.

What are the benefits of colostrum?

Colostrum builds your baby's immune system and provides concentrated nutrition. Some of the benefits of colostrum are:

Helps strengthen your baby's immune system.
Helps to establish a healthy gut by coating the intestines. This helps keep harmful bacteria from being absorbed.
Offers ideal nutrition for a newborn.
Has a laxative effect that helps your baby clear meconium (your baby's first poop) and lessens the chance of jaundice.
Easy to digest.
Helps prevent low blood sugar in full-term babies.

Why is colostrum good for newborns?

Colostrum has all the nutrients your baby needs in the first few days of life. It's also packed with nutrients and vitamins to strengthen your baby's immune system.

The flow of colostrum from your nipples is slow so your baby can learn to breastfeed (nurse). Learning how to breastfeed takes practice and requires your newborn to not only learn to suck and swallow but breathe at the same time.

Does leaking colostrum mean labor is close?

Colostrum leaking from your breasts doesn't mean labor is coming. Leaking colostrum is normal and some people notice it as early as the second trimester. Some don't notice any signs of leaking colostrum while others will see dried colostrum on their nipples. If you are leaking colostrum, you can wear disposable or washable breast pads.

Can you express colostrum if you're pregnant?

Colostrum can be expressed by about week 37 in pregnancy and is beneficial for some people. Using your hands to compress your breasts in a rhythmic pattern so that milk comes out is called hand expressing. Expressing colostrum before your baby is born carries some risks like contractions or premature labor. It can be beneficial to those at risk for premature birth, low milk supply or when certain health conditions present.

Speak with your healthcare provider before you remove colostrum from your breasts. If you are leaking colostrum, it may be safe to collect and store it for when your baby is born.

Can you pump colostrum?

It's difficult to pump colostrum with a breast pump because of its thick consistency. Most people recommend and prefer using their hands to express colostrum. Hand expressing colostrum usually produces more colostrum than a pump.

Anatomy

What does colostrum look like?

Colostrum is often a deep, rich yellow or orange color, almost like the yolk of an egg. This is because it contains high levels of beta carotene. It can sometimes appear white, clear or creamy. It's a thicker consistency than breast milk (or cow's milk), but the thickness varies from person to person. Colostrum is often sticky and can contain faint traces of blood (this is normal).

How do I know I am making colostrum?

Your body begins producing colostrum between 12 and 18 weeks in pregnancy. Most people will produce anywhere from a tablespoon to an ounce of colostrum within the first 24 hours of delivery. This slowly increases until transitional milk comes in around the third or fourth day. In most cases, you will not know if you are making colostrum, however, it's very rare to be unable to produce colostrum. You will know if your baby is getting colostrum if he or she is maintaining their weight and wetting diapers.

How long do you have colostrum?

Your body produces colostrum for up to about five days after your baby is born. It changes to transitional milk around this time, then changes again to mature milk after about 14 days. Traces of colostrum are present in your breast milk for up to six weeks.

Conditions and Disorders

What happens if you don't produce colostrum?

Most people will produce some colostrum — not producing it is rare. It's normal to feel like nothing is coming out of your breasts and worry that your baby isn't getting enough. Your baby only needs a few teaspoons of colostrum to fill their tiny stomach.

Care

How do you store pumped colostrum?

If you and your healthcare provider decide it's safe to express and store colostrum, there are a few rules to follow. First, you should ensure the colostrum is stored in a sterile container or syringe. It can be kept in your refrigerator for about two or three days. It must be moved to a freezer after three days. Colostrum can be kept in a freezer for at least three months.

Frequently Asked Questions

How much colostrum does a newborn need?

Your newborn's tummy is about the size of a marble. They only need about an ounce of colostrum per day. This equals about a teaspoon each feeding (you can expect to feed your newborn eight to 10 times the first few days). The amount of colostrum (and then transitional milk) your baby needs increases slowly each day as their stomach expands. As your body transitions to producing regular breast milk, your milk production will increase to meet their needs.

Do I need to supplement?

No, you shouldn't need to supplement. A tiny bit of colostrum goes a long way in filling up your baby. Check with your healthcare provider to make sure your baby is gaining weight. If your baby is wetting diapers and seems pretty happy, supplementing is usually not necessary.

Is it okay to squeeze out colostrum?

Yes, it's usually OK to squeeze out colostrum once you reach full-term pregnancy (37 weeks). Check with your healthcare provider if you wish to do this prior to your baby being born. If you want to hand express colostrum for your newborn, follow these steps:

Cup your breasts with your hand in a "C" shape. Four fingers should be under your breast and your thumb should be above your nipple.
Use your thumb and index finger to gently squeeze your areola and nipple.
Repeat several times and in a pattern. Apply firm pressure but do not slide your fingers. If colostrum doesn't come out, try moving your fingers to another spot.
Colostrum should slowly flow out within minutes. It's thick and comes out in drops.
You can repeat this a few times per day.

Please note that expressing colostrum before your baby is born carries risks. Some people can go into premature labor or begin having contractions. Talk to your healthcare provider before you express colostrum.

A note from Cleveland Clinic

Colostrum is the first milk produced by your breasts. It's rich in nutrients and high in antibodies and antioxidants. Getting started with breastfeeding can be difficult and usually requires assistance, so don't be ashamed to ask your healthcare provider for help. Breastfeeding early and often is the best way to make sure your baby gets the many benefits from colostrum. Hand expressing colostrum and feeding your baby with a syringe is also an option. Ask your healthcare team for help if feeding your baby colostrum is something you wish to do.

What Is It, Benefits & What To Expect

Overview

What is colostrum?

What is colostrum made of?

What kind of nutrients are in colostrum?

Colostrum is rich in nutrients that protect and nourish your baby unlike anything else. It's made up of things like:

Immunoglobulin A (an antibody).
Lactoferrin (a protein that helps prevent infection).
Leukocytes (white blood cells).
Epidermal growth factor (a protein that stimulates cell growth).

What's the difference between colostrum and breast milk?

There are distinct differences between colostrum and breast milk:

Colostrum is filled with immunoglobins to boost your baby's immune system and protect it from illness.
Colostrum has two times as much protein.
Colostrum has four times as much zinc.
Colostrum is lower in fat and sugar so it's easier to digest.
Colostrum is thicker and more yellow.

What are the stages of breast milk?

There are three different stages of breast milk: colostrum, transitional milk and mature milk.

Colostrum: Your first milk that lasts between two and four days after birth.
Transitional milk: Begins approximately four days after birth and lasts about two weeks.
Mature milk: Milk that lasts from approximately 14 days after birth until you are done producing milk.

When does colostrum turn to milk?

What makes colostrum turn to breast milk?

Function

What is the purpose of colostrum?

What are the benefits of colostrum?

Colostrum builds your baby's immune system and provides concentrated nutrition. Some of the benefits of colostrum are:

Helps strengthen your baby's immune system.
Helps to establish a healthy gut by coating the intestines. This helps keep harmful bacteria from being absorbed.
Offers ideal nutrition for a newborn.
Has a laxative effect that helps your baby clear meconium (your baby's first poop) and lessens the chance of jaundice.
Easy to digest.
Helps prevent low blood sugar in full-term babies.

Why is colostrum good for newborns?

Colostrum has all the nutrients your baby needs in the first few days of life. It's also packed with nutrients and vitamins to strengthen your baby's immune system.

Does leaking colostrum mean labor is close?

Can you express colostrum if you're pregnant?

Speak with your healthcare provider before you remove colostrum from your breasts. If you are leaking colostrum, it may be safe to collect and store it for when your baby is born.

Can you pump colostrum?

Anatomy

What does colostrum look like?

How do I know I am making colostrum?

How long do you have colostrum?

Conditions and Disorders

What happens if you don't produce colostrum?

Care

How do you store pumped colostrum?

Frequently Asked Questions

How much colostrum does a newborn need?

Do I need to supplement?

Is it okay to squeeze out colostrum?

Cup your breasts with your hand in a "C" shape. Four fingers should be under your breast and your thumb should be above your nipple.
Use your thumb and index finger to gently squeeze your areola and nipple.
Repeat several times and in a pattern. Apply firm pressure but do not slide your fingers. If colostrum doesn't come out, try moving your fingers to another spot.
Colostrum should slowly flow out within minutes. It's thick and comes out in drops.
You can repeat this a few times per day.

A note from Cleveland Clinic

Colostrum during pregnancy | Medela

Colostrum is sometimes called liquid gold, and not only because of its color. We will tell you why this first food is so important for a newborn baby.

Share this information

Colostrum, the first milk produced at the start of breastfeeding, is the ideal nutrition for a newborn. It is very concentrated and rich in proteins and nutrients, so even in small quantities it saturates the tiny tummy of a newborn for a long time. Colostrum is low in fat and easy to digest, yet provides the baby with all the essential ingredients for an optimal developmental start. And perhaps most importantly, it plays a decisive role in the formation of the baby's immune system.

Colostrum looks thicker and yellower than mature milk. Its composition also differs in accordance with the special needs of the newborn.

Colostrum fights infections

Almost two-thirds of the cells in colostrum are white blood cells, which not only protect the baby's body from infections, but also teach them to fight them themselves. ¹ “White blood cells are very important for the development of immunity. They provide protection and counteract pathogenic microbes,” says Professor Peter Hartmann of the University of Western Australia, a leading lactation expert.

After giving birth, your body no longer protects the baby, and he must confront the new dangers of the world on his own. The white blood cells found in colostrum produce antibodies that can neutralize bacteria and viruses. These antibodies are especially good at dealing with indigestion and diarrhea, which is very important for very young children, whose intestines are not yet fully developed.

Colostrum supports the child's immune system and intestinal function

Colostrum is especially rich in secretory immunoglobulin A -
is the most important antibody that protects the child from diseases, but not through the circulatory system, but as a protective coating of the mucous membrane of the gastrointestinal tract. ² “The molecules that provide the mother's immune defenses enter the mother's bloodstream into the breast, where they combine to form secretory immunoglobulin A, which is then transferred to the baby along with colostrum,” explains Professor Hartmann. “Secretory immunoglobulin A accumulates on the mucous membranes of the intestines and respiratory system of the child and protects him from diseases that the mother has already had.”

Colostrum also contains many other immunological components and growth factors that stimulate the development of protective mucous membranes in the intestines of the child, and the prebiotics contained in it contribute to the formation of beneficial microflora. ³

Colostrum prevents jaundice

Colostrum not only protects against indigestion, but also has a laxative effect. This helps newborns to empty the intestines frequently, removing from it everything that was digested there in the prenatal state, in the form of meconium - dark and viscous feces.

Frequent stools in newborns also reduce the risk of jaundice. A baby is born with a high level of red blood cells that absorb oxygen from the air. As these cells break down, the liver helps to process them, producing a by-product called bilirubin. If the child's liver is not yet sufficiently formed to process it, bilirubin begins to be deposited in the body, causing jaundice. ⁴ The laxative properties of colostrum help the baby to remove bilirubin from the body along with the stool.

Colostrum contains vitamins and minerals

Carotenoids and vitamin A give colostrum its characteristic yellow color. . ⁷ Babies are usually born with a low supply of vitamin A, ⁸ and colostrum helps to replenish it.

"The first three days are especially important for establishing breastfeeding"

In addition, colostrum is rich in minerals, such as magnesium, which is good for the baby's heart and bones, and copper and zinc, which are involved in the development of the immune system. ^9.10 Zinc also contributes to the development of the brain, and there is almost four times more zinc in colostrum than in mature milk, ¹⁰ because the brain of a newborn must develop rapidly.

Colostrum helps your baby grow and develop

Colostrum contains many other ingredients that help your baby grow and develop. The role of some of them is still unknown to scientists.

“Colostrum retains its composition for about 30 hours after the baby is born,” says Prof. Hartmann. - It contains quite a lot of proteins, because all the antibodies in its composition are essentially proteins. It is relatively low in lactose [milk sugar] and has a different fat composition than mature milk. ”

In addition, colostrum is close in composition to the amniotic fluid that your baby swallowed and excreted while in the womb, making it ideal for adapting to the outside world. ¹¹

Transition from colostrum to mature milk

Breast milk usually begins to arrive two to four days after birth. The breasts become firmer and fuller, and instead of colostrum, transitional milk is excreted, which is whiter in color and more creamy in consistency.

“The first three days are especially important for establishing breastfeeding,” says Prof. Hartmann. “If everything is done correctly during this period, lactation is likely to be good, and the baby will be able to grow normally.”

It seems unbelievable now, but in just one year your baby will be able to walk and maybe even talk. Colostrum is produced for only a few days, but makes an invaluable contribution to the development of the baby during the first 12 months, and the resulting benefits remain with him for life.

Want to know more? Read our free e-book Surprising Breast Milk Facts and article What is Transitional Milk?.

Literature

1 Hassiotou F et al. Maternal and infant infections stimulate a rapid leukocyte response in breastmilk. Clin Transl Immunology. 2013;2(4): e 3. - Hassiot F. et al., "Infectious diseases of the mother and child stimulate a rapid leukocyte reaction in breast milk." Clean Transl Immunology. 2013;2(4):e3.

2 Pribylova J et al. Colostrum of healthy mothers contains broad spectrum of secretory IgA autoantibodies. J Clin Immunol. 2012;32(6):1372-1380. - Pribylova J. et al., "Healthy mother's colostrum contains a broad spectrum of secretory autoimmune antibodies to immunoglobulin A". W Clean Immunol. 2012;32(6):1372-1380.

3 Bode L. Human milk oligosaccharides: every baby needs a sugar mama. Glycobiology. 2012;22(9):1147-1162. - Bode L., "Oligosaccharides in breast milk: a sweet mother for every baby." Glycobiology (Glycobiology). 2012;22(9):1147-1162.

4 Mitra S, Rennie J. Neonatal jaundice: aetiology, diagnosis and treatment. Br J Hosp Med (Lond). 20172;78(12):699-704. - Mitra S, Rennie J, Neonatal Jaundice: Etiology, Diagnosis, Treatment. Br J Hosp Med (Lond). 20172;78(12):699-704.

5 Patton S et al. Carotenoids of human colostrum. Lipids. 1990;25(3):159-165. - Patton S. et al., Carotenoids in Maternal Colostrum Lipidz. 1990;25(3):159-165.

6 Gilbert C , Foster Childhood blindness in the context of VISION 2020--the right to sight. Bull World Health Organ. 2001;79(3):227-232. - Gilbert S., Foster A., "Childhood Blindness in Context VISION 2020 - the right to see". Bull World Health Organ. 2001;79(3):227-232.

7 Bates CJ. Vitamin A. Lancet. 1995;345(8941):31-35. — Bates S.J., "Vitamin A". Lancet (Lancet) 1995;345(8941):31-35.

8 World Health Organization. e-Library of Evidence for Nutrition Actions (eLENA) [Internet]. Geneva , Switzerland : WHO ; 2018 [ Accessed : 05/14/2018]. Available from Evidence-based electronic library on WHO nutrition activities ( eLENA ) [Internet]. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO; 2018 [visited 14 May 2018] Article at: [ www.who.int/elena/titles/vitamina_infants/en/ ]

9 Kulski JK, Hartmann PE. Changes in human milk composition during the initiation of lactation. AUST J EXP Biol Med SCI . 1981;59(1):101-114. - Kulsky JK, Hartmann PI, "Changes in the composition of breast milk at the onset of lactation". Aust Zh Exp Biol Med Sai. 1981;59(1):101-114.

10 Casey CE Studies in human lactation: zinc, copper, manganese and chromium in human milk in the first month of lactation. Am J Clin Nutr 1985;41(6):1193-1200. - Casey S.I. et al., Female Lactation Study: Zinc, Copper, Magnesium, and Chromium in Breast Milk in the Early Months of Lactation. Am J Clean Nutr. 1985;41(6):1193-1200.

11 Marlier L et al. Neonatal responsiveness to the odor of amniotic and lacteal fluids: a test of perinatal chemosensory continuity. Child Dev . 1998;69(3):611-623. - Marlier L. et al., "Newborn responses to amniotic and milk odors: testing perinatal chemosensory continuity. Child Dev. 1998;69(3):611-623.

Transitional milk | Stages of breast milk production

During the first couple of weeks after birth, the composition of breast milk changes dramatically. Learn about the amazing properties of this transitional milk.

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A newborn changes literally every day, and the same can be said about breast milk. With the advent of milk, the breast can increase to an impressive size, and changes occur not only on the outside, but also inside. During the first week, the milk-producing cells and the connections between them are rebuilt and prepare the breast for the upcoming feeding. ¹ From now until about the end of the second week, they will produce what is called transitional milk. ²

“After the placenta is delivered, levels of progesterone, the pregnancy hormone, begin to decline rapidly,” explains Professor Peter Hartmann of the University of Western Australia, a leading authority on the composition of breast milk. “As progesterone levels decrease, milk synthesis increases and the composition is approaching the norm, although a couple more weeks are needed for the full maturation of the milk.

Stages of breast milk production: intermediate phase

If colostrum is the very first food of the baby, and mature milk is his main food for a long time, then transitional milk is a kind of bridge between them.

They should be considered as three different stages of milk production, not three types of milk. The main components remain unchanged throughout breastfeeding, only their quantity changes depending on the circumstances. During the transition period, the composition of milk undergoes the most significant changes, and this happens every day in accordance with the changing needs of the child.

Milk changes because it contains bioactive components, including cells, hormones and beneficial bacteria. The transition to mature milk does not happen all at once: the composition changes gradually and in strict accordance with the developmental needs of the baby. ^3.4

“The amount of milk produced by the mother is the main influence on the composition of milk,” says Professor Hartman. “The composition of milk at low and higher levels of production is different.”

Transitional milk: increase

As the child grows, it needs more food and a different ratio of nutrients. The amount of milk produced during this period also increases significantly. You can produce 600-700 ml per day, ⁵ which is a very impressive amount compared to the small amount of colostrum that was produced in the early days.

"The composition of milk in all mammals varies according to the needs of the young"

Your breasts are now in "boost" mode: your body is learning to produce the amount of milk your baby needs. The breast becomes more mature, as does the milk. Compared to colostrum, transitional milk contains more fat and lactose, a natural sugar that gives your baby energy. ²

“Lactose levels rise sharply in the first two or three days after birth,” says Prof. Hartmann. They are an easily digestible source of energy and have antiviral properties. In addition, sodium and chloride levels are greatly reduced during this period, so that the milk has a very low salt content.”

Protein: correct ratio

The protein content of breast milk also does not remain unchanged. There are two types of proteins in human milk: casein and whey. Under the influence of acid in the child's stomach, casein turns into a solid mass (cottage cheese) and gives a feeling of satiety for a longer time. It also has antimicrobial properties. Whey, on the other hand, is rich in antibodies and remains liquid, so it is easily absorbed, which is especially important for newborns. As the child's gastrointestinal tract strengthens, the ratio of casein to whey in milk gradually changes. If in colostrum it is about 90:10, then after a month it reaches 60:40, and after a year of breastfeeding, the balance is set at 50:50. ⁶

This ratio of proteins is ideal for humans, as our body grows relatively slowly and the brain is constantly growing and becoming more complex. In addition, it promotes the supply of all the essential amino acids that a child needs for the healthy development of the brain, eyes and other organs.

The amount of whey protein in human milk is significantly higher than that of other mammals. In cow's milk, the ratio of whey and casein is the opposite: 20:80 (therefore, it is not suitable for feeding children under one year old). ⁷

“Milk is designed to perform a specific task,” continues Professor Hartmann, “Some components are present in all milk, such as proteins and fats, but if you look at which proteins and which fats, it becomes clear which animal belongs to milk. The composition of milk in all mammals varies depending on the needs of the young.

Changing the protective properties of transitional milk

Although your baby is still very young, already in the first couple of weeks he begins to develop his own immune system, and now he needs your direct protection a little less.

The concentration of protective enzymes and antibodies in breast milk changes accordingly. The content of some substances, in particular lactoferrin (protective enzyme) and secretory immunoglobulin A (antibody), decreases, while other substances, such as the antibacterial enzyme lysozyme, on the contrary, increase. ⁸

“The protein content of milk decreases around the same time,” says Prof. Hartmann, “The synthesis of protective proteins occurs at the same rate, but they are more diluted due to increased milk production.”

The concentration of minerals such as zinc, copper and magnesium, which support the development of the child's immune system, also decreases as the immune system strengthens. ⁹

When breast milk becomes fully mature

During the transition period, the composition of breast milk changes significantly. By the end of the first month, it becomes fully mature. This means that the child will be able to eat them further as they grow. The composition of milk will no longer change much, no matter how long you continue breastfeeding - a few months, a year or more.

Would you like to know more? Read our free e-book Surprising Breast Milk Facts or article on mature milk.

Literature

1 Pang WW, Hartmann PE. Initiation of human lactation: secretory differentiation and secretory activation. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia. 2007;12(4):211-221. - Pang, W.W., Hartmann, P.I., "Lactation initiation in the lactating mother: secretory differentiation and secretory activation." F Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia. 2007;12(4):211-221.

2 Ballard O, Morrow AL. Human milk composition: nutrients and bioactive factors. Pediatr Clin North Am 2013;60(1):49-74. - Ballard O., Morrow A.L., "Composition of breast milk: nutrients and biologically active factors." Pediatrician Clean North Am. 2013;60(1):49-74.

3 Munblit D et al. Colostrum and mature human milk of women from London, Moscow, and Verona: determinants of immune composition. Nutrients. 2016; 8(11): 695. - Moonblit, D. et al., "Colostrum and mature breast milk from women in London, Moscow, and Verona: major factors in immune composition." Nutrients. 2016; 8(11): 695.

4 Pons SM et al. Triacylglycerol composition in colostrum, transitional and mature human milk. Eur J Clin Nutr 2000;54(12):878-882. — Pons SM, "Triacylglycerol in colostrum, transitional and mature human milk". Yur J Klin Nutr. 2000;54(12):878-882.

5 Neville MC et al. Studies in human lactation: milk volumes in lactating women during the onset of lactation and full lactation. Am J Clin Nutr . 1988;48(6):1375-1386. - Neville M.S. et al., "Female Lactation Study: Milk Quantity in Lactating Women at the Beginning and Peak of Lactation." Am F Clean Nutr. 1988;48(6):1375-1386.

6 Kunz C, Lönnerdal B. Re-evaluation of the whey protein/casein ratio of human milk. Acta Paediatr. 1992;81(2):107-112. Kunz S, Lonnerdal W. Act Pediatr.1992;81(2):107-112. - Kuntz S., Lönnerdahl B., "New Evaluation of Whey Protein/Casein in Breast Milk". Akta Pediatr. 1992;81(2):107-112.

7 Martin CR et al. Review of infant feeding: key features of breast milk and infant formula. Nutrients. 2016;8(5). - Martin S.R. et al., Review of Infant Feeding Issues: Key Features of Breast Milk and Infant Formula.
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